Founded: 1st century (Apostolic era, established by The Holy Spirit through the Apostles following Pentecost)[1]

Key Beliefs:
• Apostolic succession: Direct line of authority from the apostles[2]
• Sacraments: Recognition of core sacraments like Baptism and Eucharist[3]
• Scripture + Tradition: Both the Bible and apostolic tradition as sources of divine revelation[4]
• Episcopal authority: Led by bishops (episkopoi) but without singular papal supremacy[5]
• Unity in diversity: Multiple centers of authority (Rome, Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem, Constantinople)[6]
• Early church councils: Collective decision-making through ecumenical councils[7]
• Martyrdom and persecution: Sustained through Roman persecution until Constantine[8]

Historical Context: The original "catholic" (universal) church before major schisms[9]. This represents Christianity as it existed in the first few centuries before the rise of papal supremacy[10].
Distinctive Features: House churches, bishop-led communities, emphasis on apostolic teaching and fellowship[11]

Founded: c. 451 AD (split at Council of Chalcedon)[24]

Key Beliefs:
• Miaphysite Christology: Christ has one united divine-human nature (different from Catholic/Eastern Orthodox Dyophysitism)[25]
• Regional emphasis: Strong connection to ethnic and national identity[26]
• Ancient traditions: Preserves very early Christian practices[27]
• No papal authority: Rejects Roman Catholic papal supremacy[28]
• Seven sacraments: Similar to Catholic and Eastern Orthodox[29]

Major Churches: Ethiopian Orthodox[30], Coptic Orthodox[31], Armenian Apostolic[32], Syriac Orthodox[33]
Distinctive Practices: Unique liturgical traditions, ancient languages (Coptic, Ge'ez, Armenian), fasting periods[34]

Founded: c. 410 AD (Synod of Seleucia-Ctesiphon); split from West after 431 AD Council of Ephesus[35]

Key Beliefs:
• Dyophysite Christology: Traditionally described as "Nestorian," emphasizes two distinct natures (divine and human) in Christ[36]
• Historical missions: Once spread from the Middle East to China and India[37]
• Independent development: Developed separately from Western and Byzantine Christianity[38]
• Syriac tradition: Uses Syriac language and Eastern liturgies[39]
• Married clergy: Allows married priests and bishops[40]

Modern Remnants: Assyrian Church of the East, Ancient Church of the East[41]
Historical Note: Significantly reduced due to persecution and isolation, but historically very influential in Asia[42]

Founded: Gradual development, with papal supremacy solidifying from the 4th-11th centuries[12]

Key Beliefs:
• Papal supremacy: The Pope (Bishop of Rome) has ultimate, universal authority over the Church[13]
• Seven sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Anointing, Holy Orders, Matrimony[14]
• Scripture + Tradition + Magisterium: Authority from the Bible, tradition, and the teaching office of the Church[15]
• Faith + Works: Salvation comes by grace through faith, which is expressed in good works[16]
• Saints and Mary: Veneration (honor) of saints and Mary as intercessors[17]
• Transubstantiation: Bread and wine fully become the body and blood of Christ[18]
• Purgatory: A state of final purification after death for those destined for heaven[19]
• Celibate clergy: Priests and bishops must remain unmarried (in the Latin Rite)[20]

Historical Development: Evolved from the early Catholic church with increasing papal authority, especially after the fall of the Western Roman Empire[21] and the East-West Schism (1054 AD)[22].
Distinctive Practices: Mass, confession to priests, extensive liturgical calendar, Vatican authority, elaborate church hierarchy[23]

Founded: 1054 AD (Great Schism from Roman Catholicism)[43]

Key Beliefs:
• National churches: Organized into autocephalous (independent) national churches[44]
• Seven sacraments: Similar to Catholicism but with different nuances (e.g., infant communion)[45]
• Strong tradition: Scripture and "Holy Tradition" together, guided by Ecumenical Councils[46]
• Icons: Veneration (not worship) of religious icons as "windows to heaven"[47]
• No papal supremacy: Rejects the Pope's universal authority; sees him as "first among equals" (historically)[48]
• Married clergy: Priests can be married (if married before ordination), but bishops must be celibate[49]
• Theosis: Emphasis on salvation as a process of deification, becoming "partakers of the divine nature"[50]

Major Churches: Greek, Russian, Serbian, Romanian, Bulgarian Orthodox[51]
Distinctive Practices: Divine Liturgy, extensive fasting, iconostasis in churches[52]

Founded: c. 1517 AD (Martin Luther's Reformation)[53]

Key Beliefs:
• Justification by faith alone: Salvation by grace through faith, not works (sola fide)[54]
• Scripture alone: Bible is the sole infallible authority (sola scriptura)[55]
• Sacramental Union: Christ is present "in, with, and under" the bread and wine (often called Consubstantiation)[56]
• Two sacraments: Baptism and Communion as primary sacraments[57]
• Liturgical worship: Maintains traditional liturgical structure (though varies)[58]
• Grace alone: Salvation is entirely God's unmerited work (sola gratia)[59]
• Priesthood of all believers: All Christians have direct access to God[60]

Distinctive Features: Lutheran Confessions (Book of Concord, Augsburg Confession)[61], liturgical calendar, infant baptism[62].
Major Bodies: Lutheran World Federation[63], Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod[64]

Founded: 1525 AD (Swiss Brethren, radical reformation)[76]

Key Beliefs:
• Adult baptism: "Re-baptism" of believers who make a conscious decision (credo-baptism)[77]
• Pacifism: Commitment to non-violence and peace (non-resistance)[78]
• Simple living: Emphasis on modesty and separation from worldly culture[79]
• Church-state separation: Complete separation of church and government[80]
• Community discipline: Strong emphasis on church discipline ("the ban") and mutual accountability[81]
• Biblical literalism: Direct application of New Testament teachings, especially the Sermon on the Mount[82]
• Voluntary faith: Faith cannot be coerced or inherited[83]

Modern Descendants: Mennonites[84], Amish, Hutterites, Brethren churches[85]
Historical Note: Heavily persecuted by both Catholics and other Protestants[86]

Founded: 1534 AD (Henry VIII's break from Rome)[87]

Key Beliefs:
• Via media: "Middle way" between Catholicism and Protestantism[88]
• Episcopal governance: Led by bishops in apostolic succession[89]
• Book of Common Prayer: Structured liturgical worship[90]
• Three-legged stool: Scripture, tradition, and reason as authorities[91]
• Broad spectrum: Includes high church (Anglo-Catholic), low church (Evangelical), and broad church traditions[92]
• Royal supremacy: Monarch as Supreme Governor (in England)[93]
• Married clergy: Priests and bishops can marry[94]

Global Communion: Church of England, Episcopal Church (USA)[95], Anglican churches worldwide[96]
Distinctive Features: Cathedrals, choral tradition, theological diversity within unity[97]

Founded: c. 1536 AD (John Calvin in Geneva)[65]

Key Beliefs:
• Sovereignty of God: God's absolute control and foreknowledge over all things[66]
• Predestination: God has chosen (elected) who will be saved (TULIP theology is a summary of this)[67]
• Church elders: Presbyterian church government with elected elders (presbyters)[68]
• Simple worship: Focus on preaching and scripture, with minimal ritual[69]
• Covenant theology: Understanding of God's relationship with humanity through covenants[70]
• Westminster Standards: Confessions and catechisms as doctrinal standards for many[71]
• Total depravity: Humanity is completely corrupted by sin and unable to choose God[72]

Church Government: Presbyterian system with sessions, presbyteries, and general assemblies[73]
Major Bodies: Presbyterian Church (USA)[74], Orthodox Presbyterian Church, World Communion of Reformed Churches[75]

Founded: 1609 AD (Amsterdam, John Smyth)[98]

Key Beliefs:
• Believer's baptism: Baptism by full immersion only after personal faith decision[99]
• Local church autonomy: Each congregation is independent and self-governing[100]
• Biblical authority: Scripture alone as the final authority (sola scriptura)[101]
• Priesthood of believers: Every Christian has direct access to God[102]
• Religious liberty: Strong advocate for freedom of conscience and separation of church and state[103]
• Evangelism: Strong emphasis on personal evangelism and missions[104]
• Congregational polity: Democratic church governance[105]

Major Groups: Southern Baptist Convention, American Baptist Churches, Independent Baptist churches[106]
Cultural Impact: Historically influential in religious freedom movements[107]

Founded: c. 1650s (George Fox, England)[147]

Key Beliefs:
• Inner Light: Emphasize the "inner light" of God in every person[148]
• Unprogrammed Worship: Often meet in silent worship, waiting for the Holy Spirit to move members to speak[149]
• No Sacraments: Traditionally do not practice physical sacraments like baptism or communion, seeing all of life as sacramental[150]
• Peace Testimony: Historic commitment to pacifism and non-violence[151]
• Equality: Strong belief in the equality of all people, leading to advocacy for abolition, women's rights, etc.[152]

Distinctive Features: Testimonies (Simplicity, Peace, Integrity, Community, Equality), decision-making by "sense of the meeting" (seeking unity)[153]

Founded: 18th century (John Wesley's revival movement)[108]

Key Beliefs:
• Prevenient grace: God's grace is available to all people, enabling them to respond to Him[109]
• Arminian soteriology: Humans have free will to accept or reject salvation[110]
• Social holiness: Personal holiness must lead to social action and justice[111]
• Perfectionism: Christians can achieve "Christian perfection" (sanctification) in this life[112]
• Means of grace: Emphasizes spiritual growth through scripture, sacraments, prayer, and fellowship[113]
• Methodist quadrilateral: Authority based on Scripture (primary), tradition, reason, and experience[114]
• Social justice: Strong emphasis on helping the poor and marginalized[115]

Historical Impact: Abolition movement, temperance, civil rights[116]
Major Bodies: United Methodist Church[117], Free Methodist, African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME)[118]

Founded: 1789 AD (American Episcopal Church formed after American Revolution)[137]

Key Beliefs:
• Anglican tradition: Part of the worldwide Anglican Communion (USA branch)[138]
• Via media: "Middle way" between Catholicism and Protestantism[139]
• Episcopal governance: Led by bishops in apostolic succession[140]
• Book of Common Prayer: Liturgical worship with structured prayers[141]
• Broad theological spectrum: Includes Anglo-Catholic, Evangelical, and Liberal traditions[142]
• Social justice: Strong emphasis on social issues and inclusion[143]
• Ordination of women: Ordains women as priests and bishops[144]
• LGBTQ+ inclusion: Generally affirming of LGBTQ+ individuals and clergy[145]

Distinctive Features: Beautiful liturgy, cathedral tradition, theological education emphasis[146]

Founded: 1800s onwards (Stone-Campbell Movement and others)[130]

Key Beliefs:
• Primitive Christianity: Attempt to restore New Testament Christianity exactly, bypassing tradition[131]
• No creeds: "No creed but Christ, no book but the Bible"[132]
• Biblical patterns: Strict adherence to perceived New Testament patterns for worship and structure[133]
• Unity movement: Seeks to unite all Christians by returning to biblical basics[134]

Major Groups: Churches of Christ, Disciples of Christ, Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)[135].
Note: Other groups like Latter-day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses also originated in this period with a "restoration" goal, but are considered non-orthodox by mainstream Christianity (see 'Other Movements').[136]

Founded: 1863 (USA, from Millerite movement)[154]

Key Beliefs:
• Seventh-day Sabbath: Observance of the Sabbath on Saturday[155]
• Second Coming: Emphasis on the imminent literal return (Advent) of Christ[156]
• Health Message: Focus on health and wellness, often including vegetarianism and abstinence from alcohol/tobacco[157]
• Ellen G. White: Regard her writings as an authoritative source of truth, though subordinate to the Bible[158]
• State of the Dead: Belief in "soul sleep" (unconsciousness) between death and resurrection[159]

Distinctive Features: Large worldwide missions, hospital, and education systems[160]; belief in an "investigative judgment" that began in 1844[161]

Founded: 20th century onwards (especially in the USA)[169]

Key Beliefs (General):
• No Denominational Ties: Reject formal ties to historic denominations and their hierarchies[170]
• Local Church Autonomy: Emphasize independence and self-governance[171]
• Bible-Centered: Strongly Bible-focused, usually with an evangelical theology (similar to Baptist or Pentecostal beliefs)[172]
• Contemporary Worship: Often characterized by modern music and informal service styles[173]

Related Movements:
• House Church Movement: Focuses on simple, small-group meetings in homes, emphasizing community and mimicking the New Testament model[174].
• Emerging Church: A postmodern movement questioning traditional evangelical structures and embracing social justice and deconstructed faith[175].

A Note on Orthodox Classification:
Some movements, while claiming Christian identity, are considered outside orthodox Christianity by Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant groups due to fundamental doctrinal differences. This includes groups like **Latter-day Saints (Mormons)**[176] and **Jehovah's Witnesses** (which have unique restorationist claims and non-Trinitarian theology)[177], and **Unitarian Universalists**, who have Christian roots but now embrace a pluralistic, non-creedal faith that rejects the Trinity[178].

Founded: Early 1900s (Azusa Street Revival, Los Angeles)[119]

Key Beliefs:
• Baptism in the Holy Spirit: A distinct experience after salvation, evidenced by speaking in tongues[120]
• Spiritual gifts: Emphasis on all nine gifts of the Spirit (1 Corinthians 12) for today[121]
• Divine healing: God heals today through prayer and faith[122]
• Prosperity teaching: God desires believers to be healthy and prosperous (common, but not universal)[123]
• Premillennialism: Belief that Jesus will return before the millennium[124]
• Personal experience: Direct, personal relationship with God through the Spirit[125]
• Evangelistic fervor: Strong emphasis on missions and church planting[126]

Global Movement: One of the fastest-growing Christian movements worldwide[127]
Major Bodies: Assemblies of God[128], Church of God in Christ, Foursquare Church[129]

Founded: Modern movement, 1960s-1970s[162]

Key Beliefs:
• Jesus as Messiah: Jewish believers who accept Jesus (Yeshua) as the promised Messiah of Israel[163]
• Jewish Identity: Maintain Jewish identity, customs, and holidays (e.g., Passover, Yom Kippur)[164]
• Torah Observance: Varies, but many observe aspects of the Torah as a sign of cultural identity and obedience, not for salvation[165]
• Trinity: Most (but not all) Messianic Jews adhere to the doctrine of the Trinity[166]

Distinctive Features: Synagogue-style worship, use of Hebrew, bridging Jewish and Christian theology[167]. Not recognized as Judaism by mainstream Jewish movements[168].